Leadership Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Leadership - Coursework Example What I would want from my leader is his understanding. I believe that my manager should try to understand me whenever I give my opinion. They should listen to what everyone in the group they are leading since everyone needs to be given a chance to talk. My leader should not just see me just as a physical being, but should realize that I have my needs. Whenever one performs well should be motivated by being given rewards. It means that my leader will be appreciative of the work done by his group. My manager needs to be open-minded, consistent, whereby he or she is reliable and responsive, friendly, encouraging and just (Hogan & Kaisern 172). Not all managers can be transformational leaders because transformation theory tends to focus on the kind of relationship exists between the leader and his followers. Therefore, meaning that the leadership will include the use of charisma and interpersonal skills to assist the workers in achieving their objectives (Hogan & Kaisern 175). If a manager needs to be a transformational leader, he or she needs to possess transformational leadership qualities that will help them to make their followers and those around them feel that they are necessary. That is, valuing them, satisfying their needs and assessing associates’ motives. In relation to transformational leadership theory, women are argued to have more leadership potential as opposed to men. According to the theory, women tend to lead their followers more effectively than that of men (Northouse 17). It is because transformational leadership being that it needs leaders who are inspirational, empowering, concerned of their followers, positive role models and are capable of pushing their members in becoming creative. Research has depicted that women leaders have high transformational qualities and attributes than men (Yulk 28). In my opinion, I believe that

Commodity Trade Questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Commodity Trade Questions - Essay Example The regulations were set at 40%. GAFTA is the only agreement that comprises of all the Arab states coming together to agree on trade relations. It was also guided by politic institutions which include the Gulf Cooperative Council and Arab League. It removes several walls that would have prevented an easy flow of trade which include the tariffs, monetary, administrative and NTBS. It has well defined rules from the routes of these communities. Benefits With this agreement, All the member states are expected to expand their intra-regional trade. Production is bound to increase since his agreement will encourage exploitation of comparative advantage and scale economies. With an increase in competition in the market, there will be a choice for consumers as companies are going to struggle and venture in other form of producing different products. Rules and regulations of trade will improve as import prices are going to go down. With GAFTA in effect, regional development is going to be noti ced drastically. Question 2 How to reduce the risk for global commodity trader Since there is high profit expected in any global commodity trade, the risks are also high. According to (Williams, 1999), when one is involved in commodity trading, he is bound to lose more cash than what he takes to the bank. Always have a strategy to control some risks. If you have a valid risk plan, it will warn you when to indulge in the risk or run away. A global commodity trader should interpret all the risks involved in a business deal so that he does not get confused in the time of when to stay put or to run. Every commodity global trader should have established a specific price so as to prevent losses unlike when he does not have a stop price. If this trader has a stop price he is more likely to manage his losses and vice Versa. Risks due to language barriers can be solved with the presence of an interpreter or trading in the market where there is a language spoken in common. The trader should a lways make sure that he is trading with registered and incensed traders. He should upgrade his license every time it is required of him to avoid problems that may arise from it. It is up to the seller to determine where to deliver his goods. The place of trade should be a peaceful place free from war. He should be positively confident that the country he is trading in has a foreign currency. It is up to the seller to have the right quality and quantity of goods needed in the market foe efficiency. He should also learn about the markets he is involved in and try to understand them fully. This includes their terms and conditions. He should understand the culture of the particular people he is trading with and should avoid all corrupt deals as they are likely to backfire. Learn about all the governments you are involved in during trade and know their capabilities of them paying their debts. There are other markets that a global commodity trader can consider. According to (Cark, Lesourd , & Thieblemont, 2001) trading of commodities, markets may be physical or derivative. Question 3 What do the following ICC Inco terms stand for? According to (Moens & Gillis, 1998) EXW: this Inco term stands for EX Works/Ex factory. When doing business under the influence of this policy, the seller is supposed to make the products available to the buyer at the sellers’ business premise. It is up to the buyer to collect it. WWD: Weather Working Days. This means

Refugees and Social Integration in Winnipeg

Refugees and Social Integration in Winnipeg This paper will examine refugees and social integration in Winnipeg and attempt to answer the questions posed in the syllabus. The status of refugees is significant in Winnipeg as the province of Manitoba admits more than 1000 refugees per year[1], the majority of who settle in Winnipeg. Refugees arrive in Winnipeg often with very little and are desperate to be able to integrate successfully, however this can be difficult to achieve. These new arrivals impact the city in that they are dependent on social services which in turn cost the government money. In addition due to lack of available funds upon arrival refugees often have to live in high poverty areas[2], centered on the downtown which leads to social issues that can be difficult for refugees to live with. In these circumstances making valuable social connections can be hard, often cultural differences make it challenging for new arrivals to make connections with the community, or neighbours. Poverty rates remain high for refugees living in Winnipeg and over time this has a detrimental effect not only on the lives of the refugees themselves but of the community at large as high poverty areas become a burden on the social services and typically have high rates of crime[3]. The number of refugees seeking entry to Canada has been steady increasing since 2000, this apparently in line with growing conflicts across Africa and the Middle East. Around these regions the nature of conflicts has been changing from nations fighting each other to civil conflicts within a nation, which tend to go on for much longer than tradition conflicts. In countries such as Syria, Iraq and Somalia ongoing civil war and terrorist insurgency has had a devastating effect on the civilian populations. People are often targeted for perceived allegiances to one side or the other and are persecuted for it, the level of destruction surrounding civilian populations is high and as a result many people become displaced, people who in turn become refugees seeking asylum abroad. These people often have to leave their homes quickly and with very little in terms of monetary value for fear of their lives. Understandably these people look abroad for support where they might be free from the fear and oppression that they would suffer if they returned to their home countries. As the conflicts in these regions continue more and more people will seek a better opportunity to live abroad, and Canada is a desired destination. With the increase in asylum seekers more people are seeking entry to Canada under refugee status, this impacts Winnipeg as more new arrivals will be refugees and unlike landed immigrants these people often will require significant assistance with social integration [4]among other things. The city of Winnipeg and how many refugees we admit per year has a direct impact on the people living in destitute conditions, be it in overcrowded housing on UN tent camps. Their standard of living increases dramatically being able to live here, and despite initial challenges in getting situated the chance to live here is something sought after by many around the world. The status of refugees in Winnipeg admittedly affects me very little. Personally I cannot say that I know anyone who is a refugee or even any friends that know one. However despite not personally being impacted by refugees I can see the effects of the city as a whole. While sympathetic towards the difficulties these people have faced I am also aware of the burden that is placed on social services and private individuals and institutions to support refugees, support which regular immigrants would under most circumstances not need. It is also good to keep in mind that Canada is running a deficit and any increase in social spending does nothing to help with that. People I know have also been impacted as refugees predominantly work in the service and labour sectors and hold relatively high employment around 80%[5], this could be a factor into why people around my age have difficulty finding employment at traditionally entry level jobs, such as retail, food industry etc. As for how I impa ct the social integration of refugees in the city I would have to say not at all, as I don’t know any refugees and I am not in any position to impact their lives. Personal bias aside as far as a critical assessment goes, I would begin with saying that refugees face incredible challenges both in leaving their home countries and establishing themselves in Canada. Refugees arriving in Winnipeg often have very little money, and low prospects of a good paying job and face difficulty in dealing with the trauma that they may have experienced due to war or persecution of some kind in their country of origin[6]. Due to how refugees are dispersed across Canada new arrivals often find themselves isolated and without anyone of their own cultural background to associate with, I can imagine how difficult this might be, for instance if there were to hypothetically be a civil war break out in Canada and myself and family were forced to relocate to somewhere like Nairobi or Istanbul I could see how difficult it would be to fit into society. The same can be said about refugees from Africa and the Mid-East many of whom don’t even speak English which is es sential to living in Canada. As well once a refugee does arrive things often aren’t as great as they had been led to believe, in the case of Winnipeg most refugees in recent times are from visible minorities and often have to live in poverty stricken neighbourhoods around the downtown core area[7]. I have found that once a refugee has been successfully settled in Winnipeg the majority of assistance they had received goes away and considers the job done. While I can see how it would be costly to maintain direct support for all of the refugee families admitted it is clear that many struggle with a number of issues after social services move on to the next family. The theoretical lens which I have viewed this in is the Liberal approach, which also seems to be the method by which the West approaches refugees in general. The most important point being that there is a moral imperative to help these people the best way we can with the abundant resources at our disposal. This also plays into international justice and how to Liberal west can help those that are oppressed by people who hold opposing views. Looking at the status of refugees in Winnipeg it is clear that Liberal minding institutions have helped many thousands of people, not only find homes but also employment. While I can certainly appreciate the good done on behalf of institutions in Winnipeg clearly more has to be done. Many of the values which we hold here are not readily apparent to refugees who are finding it difficult to manage here and find them falling into poverty. This seems to be a recurring issue within the refugee population in the city and it is troubling that despite the numbers of those stuck in poverty they seem to have been largely abandoned by the government which continues to bring in more refugees without improving the conditions of those already here[8]. It follows to me at least that if those refugees here in Winnipeg are able to access better education and jobs that they would be able to contribute far more to our society that they are at the present. With higher wages they would be able to afford their own homes, rather than be exploited by landlords that enjoy powerful positions over refugees in their situations. With access to jobs more befitting of their qualifications they would be able to afford education for any children they may have brought with them which in turn leads to a better community as a whole since their children would be far less likely to get into crime or be recruited into street gangs, a real issue among young African male refugees who see it as the only opportunity to better their position. Certain policies I would a lso view as questionable, for instance the cost effective move to have affordable housing located in the worst parts of the city. While this may be less of a burden of the social services it does little to help the city of Winnipeg in the long-term. As these refugees are forced to live in dangerous neighbourhoods where children are routinely exploited, this does nothing to exhale the value were place on Liberty in the West. These families are forced to live in cramped, dirty apartments where social interactions with the community tend to be minimal due to crime within those areas. From my own experiences in dealing with people downtown I can imagine some of the difficulties a recent Syrian or African immigrant may face if they have to work late night as past a certain time the majority of people leave the downtown area and it can become dangerous to have to travel on foot very late into the night. This goes back to the issue of good employment, having to work late night shift work w ith the chance of being harassed or accosted after work doesn’t sound very appealing to me. The lack of continued aid once a refugee has found a job is a failure, and aid agencies like Winnipeg harvest among others are often strained to help or are unknown to refugee families. Now that isn’t to say that I believe we are obligated to help refugees, however if Canada is to uphold the Liberal values which it proclaims then we should handle refugees properly and with adequate support networks in place. From the articles and new reports I have researched for this paper it is clear that while refugees are certainly grateful to everything Canada has given them, it simply is not enough once they are settled and families fall into poverty and all associated issues. I can think of several things that could help the situation of refugees in the city, of course doing the right thing tends never to be time/cost effective. Recognition of refugees education is a big step in helping t hem to get meaningful employment, many refugees simply cannot afford to go to school here when they must work long hours to support themselves and families. I our diverse multicultural society it would pay off in the long term to give refugees better access to working environments, longer programs to ensure successful integration. Also better methods to deal with the trauma and mental issues that accompany living in a warzone. All told despite the many issues, refugees are doing well in Winnipeg issues in good employment remain but refugees do overwhelmingly feel safe in Winnipeg are at least able to find work for the most part. With the financial difficulties facing Canada, and Winnipeg it is understandable that we simply cannot provide the best for refugees at the moment without a noticeable impact of groups giving aid to Canadians that already are in need, however anything we can give them is far better than what they would have faced in their country of origin. Bibliography Articles Carter, Derwing, Ogilivie, T. Wotherspoon. â€Å"Prairies Region,† Our Diverse Cities 6 (2009): 8-50, 104. Omidvar, Richmond. â€Å"Immigrant Settlement and Social Inclusion in Canada,† Working Paper Series: Perspectives on Social Inclusion (2003) 44. Gyepi-Garbrah, J., Walker, R., Garcea, J.† Indigeneity, Immigrant Newcomers and Interculturalism in Winnipeg, Canada.†Urban Studies (2013). Short Sources Carol Sanders, â€Å"Feds to pay for only 40% of refugees,† Winnipeg Free Press, January 1, 2015. Accessed April 1, 2015. http://www.winnipegfreepress.com/local/feds-to-pay-for-only-40-of-refugees-288229911.html Janine LeGal, â€Å"Congo refugee Hilaire Ndyat helps new immigrants settle in Winnipeg,† Canadian Immigrant, August 12, 2011. Accessed April 1, 2015. http://canadianimmigrant.ca/immigrant-stories/careers/congo-refugee-hilaire-ndyat-helps-new-immigrants-settle-in-winnipeg Carol Sanders, â€Å"Syrian refugees’ obstacles decried,† Winnipeg Free Press, April 1, 2014. Accessed April 1, 2015. http://www.winnipegfreepress.com/local/syrian-refugees-obstacles-decried-253319531.html Amanda Thorsteinsson, November 27, 2013 (3:45 PM), Special to CBC news â€Å"Syrian refugees faced with nowhere to live† http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/manitoba/syrian-refugees-faced-with-nowhere-to-live-1.2442659 Donna Carreiro, â€Å"Winnipeg refugee the face of a global crisis,† CBC News December 15, 2014. Accessed March 27, 2015. http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/manitoba/winnipeg-refugee-the-face-of-a-global-crisis-1.2872961 Manitoba Immigrant and Refugee Settlement Sector Association, Last modified 2015. http://www.mirssa.org/about.aspx Voices of Manitoba, https://manitobavoices.wordpress.com/about/resources-for-refugees-in-winnipeg/ Carol Sanders, â€Å"Manitoba hit record refugee count in 2013,† Winnipeg Free Press, March 27, 2014. Accessed March 27, 2015. http://www.winnipegfreepress.com/local/manitoba-hit-record-refugee-count-in-2013-252590021.html University of Winnipeg Communications, December 9, 2014. â€Å"Bridging two worlds: Helping refugee youth succeed in Canada† http://news-centre.uwinnipeg.ca/all-posts/bridging-two-worlds-helping-refugee-youth-succeed-in-canada/ Shane Gibson, â€Å"Tough road for African immigrants, refugees in Winnipeg: report.† Metro News, July 26, 2012. Accessed April 1, 2015. http://metronews.ca/news/winnipeg/310949/tough-road-for-african-immigrants-refugees-in-winnipeg-report/ CBC News, â€Å"Syrian refugees glad to be in Winnipeg, but struggle to feed kids,† CBC News, July 4, 2014. Accessed April 6, 2015. http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/manitoba/syrian-refugees-glad-to-be-in-winnipeg-but-struggle-to-feed-kids-1.2697018 Shane Gibson, â€Å"Library for refugee and immigrant children opens in Winnipeg,† Metro News, February 6, 2015. Accessed April 6, 2015. http://metronews.ca/news/winnipeg/1281922/library-for-refugee-and-immigrant-children-opens-in-winnipeg/ â€Å"Winnipeg Crime Statistics† last modified April 5, 2015 http://www.winnipeg.ca/crimestat/ [1] Carter, Derwing, Ogilivie, Wotherspoon, â€Å"Prairies Region.† [2] â€Å"Prairies Region† [3] â€Å"Winnipg Crime Statistics† [4] Omidvar, Richmond â€Å"Immigrant Settlement and Social Inclusion in Canada† [5] â€Å"Prairire Regions† [6] Gyepi-Garbrah, J., Walker, R., Garcea, J. â€Å"Indigeneity, Immigrant Newcomers and Interculturalism in Winnipeg† [7] â€Å"Prairie Region† [8] â€Å"Immigrant Settlement and Social Inclusion in Canada†

A Trip To Panama City :: essays research papers

A Trip To Panama City Day 1:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  We arrived at Omar Torrijos airport via American Airlines early in the afternoon. We purchased our required tourist cards (3 balboas, as US dollars are called in Panama) at the airport, then caught a taxi for the 18 mile ride to our downtown hotel. The ride in the battered, un-airconditioned car was rather expensive (30 balboas), but the driver spoke English and was very friendly. We arrived at the hotel and checked in. While my dad was checking in I bought a guidebook in the hotel lobby and read up on the history of Panama City. The original city was founded in 1519 by Pedro Arias Davila, known as Pedrarias the Cruel, because of his eradication of all but three of the local Indian tribes during his tenure in Panama. Davila used the city as a place to store Incan gold before it was shipped to Spain. The original city was sacked and burned in 1671 by a group of buccaneers led by Henry Morgan. The city was rebuilt within a year, this time on a peninsula 18 miles away and surrounded by a strong wall. This old Spanish city is now the in the middle downtown Panama City.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Panama City is an international melting pot and its eating choices range from American fast food to excellent internationall cuisine. Eager to begin our sightseeing, we grabbed lunch at a nearby McDonald's after checking in then caught a bus. The buses in Panama are a tourist attraction in themselves. They are brightly painted, hung with fringe, and have constantly blaring Salsa and Caracas music playing. They are cheap (50 cents a ride). but are very crowded. After asking several drivers â€Å"Donde va este autobus?† we finally found one going to the Plaza Independencia. This plaza is the main square of the colonial town and is bordered on one side by a cathedral with twin mother of pearl towers that took 108 years to complete. On two other sides it is bordered by the Archbishop's Palace, now a university and the Central Post Office. While in the old part of Panama City we also visited the Iglesia de San Jose and saw the Golden Aaltar. This altar was in the original Panama City and was saved from Henry Morgan's pirates by a monk who painted it black to disguise it. When we finished touring we returned to our hotel and then ate dinner at El Pez de Ora, one of the city' famous seafood restaurants. Day 2:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  We woke early and headed out for a morning of shopping at the Mercado

UNC Conboy

An International trade theory, grounded In the work of Adam Smith and David Richard, that focuses on the Importance of comparative advantage obtained through differences in natural or acquired economic advantages is referred to as: a. Classical trade theory b. Factor proportion theory c. Product life cycle theory d. Competitive advantage theory 2. Paul German's â€Å"realist† perspective embraces which of the following conclusions: a. Countries compete with each other much like companies compete with each other ND must therefore engage in similar strategic behaviors b.Government intervention in the market Is often essential due to imperfections that allow for the formation of monopolies and oligopolies In lucrative Industry segments c. Economic growth In one country must come at the expense of economic growth in another, therefore countries must protect domestic Industry in many instances d. Market imperfections due in fact exist, but the prospects for improving the situation through strategic trade policy is overstated by those in favor of government intervention 3.Cluster theory suggests that companies obtain resources as a result of geographic proximity to other related and supportive Industries primarily as a result of: a. Information spillovers b. Lower shipping costs c. Region specific subsidies d. Access to a common labor pools 4. A theory of Internationalization, observed In the wine Industry In the assigned readings, that focuses on the development of relationships between producers, suppliers, competitors, and government to obtain information and resources necessary to complete globally is referred to as: a. Pascal model b. Network model .Innovation model d. Leverage model 5. Michael Porters Diamond Model focuses on all of the following, EXCEPT: a. The Importance of International competition to drive technological Innovation b. C. Sophisticated domestic demand that encourages new product and service development d. The presence of related and su pportive industries in the domestic market 6. Mercantilism refers to policies and practices designed to: a. Encourage international trade through the creation of innovative products and services b. Remove regulatory and economic barriers to international competition c.Create a trade surplus by subsidizing domestic firms and limiting foreign competition d. Discourage all international trade to promote national independence and self- sufficiency 7. An international trade theory, grounded in the work of Wassail Limonite, that focuses on trade cycles emerging from production initially by a parent company, then by a foreign subsidiary, and ultimately by foreign competitors is referred to as: a. Classical trade theory d. Competitive advantage theory 8. Advocates of Porter's Diamond Model believe governments should support mommies industries by engaging in which of the following activities: a.Subordination of industries of national importance to improve their competitive position b. Imposi tion of barriers to prevent foreign competitors from entering domestic markets c. Provision of supportive public infrastructure and education needed to support emerging industries d. The government should play no role in supporting or developing domestic industries 9. Cluster theory focuses primarily on the creation of competitive advantage through: a. Ongoing investment in research and development to encourage innovation b.Intense price competition designed to bring down the cost of products and services c. Transportation costs associated with bringing goods and services to market d. Interactions between geographic concentrations of interconnected companies 10. The case study of wine clusters indicates that firms in this industry located in both Brazil and France have effectively leveraged which of the following cluster resources to facilitate the internationalization process: a. Affordable input costs b. Regional reputation and culture c. Manufacturing expertise d. Labor spillover s

Durkheim and Social Fact Essay

Emile Durkheim’s â€Å"The Rules of Sociological Method† posits the existence of various ‘social facts’ which, according to him, should be the scope of all sociological study and discourse. Durkheim’s discourse defines social facts as, †¦a category of facts with very distinctive characteristics: it consists of ways of acting, thinking and feeling, external to the individual, and endowed with a power of coercion, by reason of which they control him. (Durkheim 3) Thus the three main features of social facts are surfaced; as being external to the individual, emanating from a general and higher level than the individual and that these coerce or force an individual to act in accordance to them for the purpose of control. These facts, according to Durkheim, must be considered things, which he defines as realities that may be observed and classified. These things are posited to exist on the level of society, completely outside the realm of the individual and are used to control a person’s thoughts, actions and feeling from being otherwise. Should a person refuse to submit to this coercion, he would find himself the object of negative reactions ranging from ridicule, isolation or even concrete punishment or sanction. The implications of this definition initially cast sociology’s field of study as all-encompassing, referring to all realities and processes of human life and behavior, thus Durkheim seeks to clarify and establish the meaning of the descriptor ‘social’ as opposed to other adjectives such as ‘biological’, psychological’ and ‘philosophical’. Each individual drinks, sleeps, eats, reasons; and it is society’s interest that these functions be exercised in an orderly manner. If then, all these facts are counted as â€Å"social† facts, sociology would have no subject matter exclusively its own, and its domain would be confused with biology and psychology. (Durkheim 1) As mentioned above, Durkheim perceives the social fact as the scope of sociological study, and uses other fields of study to show what sociology should underscore. Biological facts and study deal with characteristics of the physical body of a person and are therefore not social, since the need to follow these facts (such as sleeping, eating and breathing) emanate from the physiological needs of an organism to survive. Psychological study deals with thought processes and phenomena that occur within an individual’s consciousness. Durkheim posits that ‘social’ facts emanate not from one person’s consciousness nor from a person’s physiological needs, but from the level of society itself, â€Å"†¦ this term [social] fits them quite well, for it is clear that, since their source is not the individual, their substratum can be no other than society. † (Durkheim 3) Another implication of his definition is that social facts exist only with the presence of social institutions which enforce them and create them. For Durkheim, it is imperative to clarify that in most cases a social institution exists with the social fact, but it must not be thought that for a social fact to exist, a social institution must be present to have created it. Rather, the reverse of the causation is in place. Social facts create social institutions which enforce and perpetuate them, but there are also other social facts which do not require the presence of an institution to sanction them. Durkheim defines such deinstitutionalized social facts as ‘social currents’, â€Å"They come to each one of us from without and carry us away in spite of ourselves. † (4) He uses the example of crowd euphoria and feeling to illustrate these. Social facts are further classified into the ‘normal’ and the ‘pathological’. Durkheim classifies social facts under these two categories in order to illustrate the coercive nature of social facts and how society has been shaped to perpetuate and enforce them. Normal social facts refer to â€Å"those which conform to given standards† while pathological social facts refer to â€Å"those which ‘ought’ to be different† (Durkheim 47). Normal social facts are those most widely occurring in the society in question and function in such a way that their presence maintains social order and accepted social life. Durkheim further posited that for a social fact to be considered normal, it would contribute to the health of a society, as mentioned earlier, it maintains accepted social processes, it promotes and is naturally coherent with accepted social norms. The vague nature of this definition and its subjectivity was borne from Durkheim’s goal of trying to contextualize and take into consideration the diversity of social life across different cultures and societies. This implies the existence of facts that are produced to control people to act in accordance to accepted norms and values, and the existence of facts whose purpose is to illustrate what is a deviation from the previously-mentioned accepted norms and values. The characteristic of social facts that posits a force that coerces people to adhere to them is what required Durkheim to make this categorization. He defined social facts as things, as realities, and thus he would seek to define the normal and the abnormal things and realities that are placed under the domain of what are considered ‘social’. If social facts exist outside the individual and are imposed upon him, what of the phenomenon that occur which are deviations from the norm, how are these to be explained as sociological when they do not adhere to society? Pathological social facts are therefore things or realities that occur in less cases than the normal social facts to show that these things are what are considered ‘abnormal’ or have some form of ‘morbidity’ that characterizes them as deviations. Durkheim compared this analogy with physiological studies, which first deal with a healthy, ‘normal’ human body and then would study the ‘abnormalities’ of the body, the possible symptoms and causes of sickness or ‘morbidity’. As the physiologist studies diseases within the human body, so does a sociologist study the pathological or ‘morbid’ phenomenon that occurs outside the individual’s consciousness. Another argument that Durkheim presents in defining the normal social fact is that ‘normal’ phenomena are often present not because of social norms and values but because of logical necessity. He argues that normal facts differ across species, but these facts are present mostly because the species has to adapt to its environment and are necessary (Durkheim 60) Rejecting other definitions of normal facts, Durkheim posited that normal facts are relative to the specific species in question during a specific time in its evolutional phase. Normal facts are therefore not permanent nor are they universal. He emphasizes this because of his previous statements that because of the normalcy and frequency of these facts they are attributed to be superior in nature. Durkheim decides what constitutes ‘normal’ social facts by evaluating the causal conditions that govern a certain fact. If, at a certain point in the society’s development, the social fact is acceptable, then the fact is normal. An example would be the practice of a girl asking a boy to engage in a social, romantic relationship with her. In these modern times, this is considered a normal fact because of the rise of female empowerment and liberalism. However, if this social fact was to be classified during the Renaissance period, it would have been classified as abnormal, because women did not enjoy empowerment or the same power they enjoy today. A social fact’s nature is intrinsic to society’s norms and causal functions that create it at a certain point in time, and not with the wideness of occurrence or moral acceptability. Durkheim takes into account how social facts may change their nature as normal and pathological over time, especially through the process of evolution, â€Å"After having established by observation that a particular fact is general, he will go back to the conditions which determined this generality in the past and will then investigate whether these conditions are still given in the present or if, on contrary they have changed. † (Durkheim 61) Contention between the two types of social fact and the rough definition that Durkheim posited may be seen in the presence of crime within a society. Crime, at first glance would be characterized as a pathological social fact, as it would feature morbidity and abnormality. This is a common perception that all criminologists would adhere to. However, crime is posited by Durkheim as a normal social fact. Durkheim showed that crime is present in all societies but in different forms, as normal and pathological facts differ across societies and evolutionary phases (65). He further stated that even in societies where crime rate is high and incidences rampant, a change may occur depending on the future state of the society which will lessen the rate of normalcy of crime (66). Crime for Durkheim is separate and different from criminal behavior and criminal acts, since these are able to be explained on levels other than on the societal. Thus Durkheim posited that the act of doing a criminal deed is not what is normal, but the presence of crime within society which is normal (67). The presence of deviations from the norm may be seen in all societies, but since the act in itself is brought about by psychological reasons and other factors that may be apparent on the individual level, criminal behavior may be part sociological and part psychological. Crime is posited to be variant and subjective across cultures and societies, and is always present no matter how rigid the norms in a society are. Crime is defined in a society based on the norms and values it holds in importance. Durkheim’s ‘collective conscience’ that governs society is what is held responsible for defining the criminal act. Again, in an effort to take into account the diversity of societies, Durkheim posits crime as subjective and dependent on social norms, with the level of tolerance of the society in question dictating what is considered crime and what is considered aberrant or curious behavior worthy or mere ridicule and oddity. Crime is always present in any society no matter how ordered and rigid it is, but with the higher control present in a society, the level of the sophistication of crime and the intricacy and effort used in committing a criminal act increases as well, in relation to the difficulty in crime commission. Statistics may then be inferred by the student to be one concrete manifestation of a social fact because of its nature of describing trends and social phenomenon, but Durkheim posited otherwise. He posited that statistics is used to represent the ‘collective mind’ which is the sum of the individual cases that adhere to social facts, whether normal or pathological. Statistics is used to isolate these specific trends. Though individual cases no doubt have other mitigating biological and psychological factors for occurring, statistics provides a way to neutralize or eliminate the individualistic factors that may constitute the cases as not within the realm of sociology. Durkheim justifies the normalcy of crime in a given society by citing that there is not society where crime is not present. Criminal acts are always regarded with negative sentiments in any society (Durkheim 66). However, Durkheim showed that the presence of crime affirms the normal social facts, that it enforces the normal by existing as a source of punishment for its own commission. In a society that has the strictest and most rigid structure of rules and normal fact that must be adhered to at all times, crime is not entirely eliminated but actually more apparent, more frowned-upon and more heavily sanctioned. Thus, the presence of crime is considered normal and the commission of criminal acts is pathological. With all this said about the social fact, the idea of a ‘social system’ would create some contentions. Social facts are thought to emanate from the societal level through a collective consciousness, where the individual is forced to conform and adhere to. A social system would imply that the relationship between individuals and society would not be so linear and one-sided. A social system would imply that as society exerts a force on the individual, so does an individual upon society. Durkheim’s ‘collective consciousness’ would then be debunked as an illusion which is perpetuated in society. A systems framework for sociological study would then take into consideration the effect of individuals in society as social institutions and structures that are composed of individuals. Durkheim’s theory on social fact would then be debunked as emanating from an illusion and would lose its objectivity and its characteristic of being grounded on reality. Works Cited Durkheim, Emile. The Rules of Sociological Method. New York: The Free Press, 1938.